Clinicl Pathology Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Clinicl Pathology - Coursework Example On the other hand, cells are the solid part of the blood. There are three types of cells present in the blood such as the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells (RBC) or erythrocytes are the enucleated, biconcave disc cells that makes the blood color red. They contain hemoglobin- a protein with iron component- that binds to the oxygen for transport throughout the body. The blood contains more RBC as compared to other kind of cells. According to Eadie and Brown Jr. (1953), the approximate life span of RBC is 100 to 120 days. White blood cells (WBC) or leukocytes are the cells involved in protecting the body from foreign bodies such as bacteria, viruses and parasites that were able to enter the body. There are two types of WBC, the granulocytes and the agranulocytes. Granulocytes are identified from agranulocytes for the presence of granules in the cells. There are three types of granulocytes, the neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils while there are two types of agranulocytes, the lymphocytes, and monocytes. Platelets or thrombocytes are the smallest cells in the blood. They function as the first group of cells to aggregate to the wounded blood vessels to stop the further leakage of blood components out of the vessel. The first test that is being taken during check up or diseases diagnosis is the blood test. There are many kind of blood test being performed today for different purposes. Some of the blood test discussed is red blood cell count, lactose tolerance test, haemoglobin, and prothrombin time test. Red blood cell count is done to measure the number of red blood cell per volume of blood. Different values of RBC per volume of blood indicate but not limited to either the presence of a disease, physical activity done, and dietary intake made. The altitude of the area of residence also affects the RBC count of individuals (Liknaitzky, 1933). Individuals living in higher

Cold War in California Essay Example for Free

Cold War in California Essay During the end of the World War II, the strife between the conflict between Capitalism against communism, and allied forces against Soviets were very much intense. From this era, various rumors and small to large scales uprising brought by communistic ideas occurred within the United States. In California and the national perspective, the thought of subversive activity was assumed by the presidency of Harry Truman. According to these assumptions, various communist parties were lurking within the cities of United States and plotting to initiate havoc; hence, in order to stop this condition, the government initiated the group, House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) in 1938. The primary of the HUAC movement was to search the quarters of American society for the possibility of existing fascists, communists or the contradicting idealism from the Soviet enemy. The tensions of HUAC had occurred nation-wide, while in California, the advancement made had grown to the point of implementing human rights violations in order to attain further victims. There were no considerations being implemented during their search. Within the study, the task is to determine the consorts of the movement HUAC and how was it able to contribute to the occurrence of cold war within California dating from 1946 to 1989. Discussion House of Un-American Activities Committee The organization of HUAC was established in May 26, 1938 with aims of investigating any signs of disloyalty among fascists as well as communists. The HUAC movement was chaired by Martin Dies Jr. together with Samuel Dickstein; hence, calling their committee as the Dies Committee. According to Christenson (1991), HUAC tracked Communist party members and other proponents of foreignisms for thirty seven years (206). During the initial phase of its operations, the HUAC movement considered the aspect of un-Americanism as a modest intervention in order to resolve the social dilemma of differences in idealism within the society. The primary and original motive of the movement was to counter the movement from possibly contemplating German American, who might had still be involved in the casualty-causing Nazi, and the Ku Klux Klan. However, the Dies committee mainly considered the Nazi and German Americans since, at that point, the stigma of World War II was still fresh to the society. From 1938 until the end of its operation, it created massive suspicion in the public and the paranoia of dangerous Un-American plot had caused unreasonable arrests. The Ku Klux Klan was accused to have been the main source of American Communism influence, and HUAC also thought of an accusation that this group was planning a Communist conspiracy. However, the HUAC was not able to obtain sufficient information to validate their accusations. Therefore, the chief counsel Ernest Adamson announced the lacking of evidence to support the communism conspiracy claims against the Klan. As supported by Linfield (1990), the representative John Wood, chair from 1945 to 1946 and 1949 to 1953, had considered Ku Klux Klan as an old American Custom (87). From the original target, Ku Klux Klan of Communist Group, HUAC moved to highlight their attention towards the American Communist party, since they were actually assuming that these groups were behind the incidents of Works Progress Administration and Federal Theatre project. By the start of 1940s, Chairman Martin Dies ordered the investigations of HUAC among labor unions and New Deal agencies, which led to different forms of accusations, rumors and response out of guilt, witness abuse and pressure implications, and assumptions of disloyalty among organizations. During its operation in the 1950s, the HUAC movement applied most of its move to the private sector blacklists, and their assumptions of possible communist threat within the entertainment industry, labor unions and different professions had consequently intensified. According to Christenson (1991), the informers introduced by HUAC cam to be known as friendly witnesses and they named names for the HUAC to target (207). The investigations of HUAC were all tarnished with human rights violations. With the drastic accusations they had implicated to public organizations, the strife and paranoia of forces occurred within the society. As the 1960s progressed, even those in political positions, together with political activists and satirists, noticed the negative implications of the committee. In 1969, the HUAC movement was renamed to House Committee on Internal Security; however, in 1970s, the movement began to loose its grounds due to the widely occurring demonstrations and effects of contributions of HUAC, which had been pertained to as the Cold War. The history of social paranoia and unproven accusations had caused negative trademark within the internal systems of the American society. One of the vastly targeted areas was California that gave emphasis on their educational systems. What Triggers to Start Defense Against HUAC? With the aim of the HUAC operations to locate possible to proven communist supporters, the drive of paranoia first suggested the famous people. Hence, the first HUAC intervention circled their first investigations to the Hollywood in 1947. HUAC movement was claiming that a writer and the motion picture industry were attempting to influence the American people through movies. From this point, ten writers and their director were imprisoned and interrogated for the reason that they were unable to answer the question, â€Å"Are there any communist plot being discussed in this area? † This was only one of the instances that occurred during the prevalence of the HUAC committee. In another scenario, after the holding of the first investigation of HUAC towards the celebrity and elite class people, 205 communists were detected within the State Department (Doherty 15). During that point, one of the famous political informal propagandas mentioned was McCarthysm, which depicted the images of celebrity persecution due to fears and anxiety brought by communist threats. According to Foner and Garraty (1991), in the 1950s, HUAC was overshadowed by Senator McCarthy’s activities, but it outlasted him, making new allegations of subversion in universities and among the clergy and then in the civil rights, black power, student, and peace movements (519). Due to these negative impressions and authority abuses made by the HUAC authorities, the society had this desire of removing the turning against to their campaign. As supported by Chalmers (2005), the events issued by the HUAC caused massive revolts and uprising with claims of human rights violations and American liberalization offenses (93). During the expanse of HUAC implementations, various societal conflicts had occurred between civilians, famous people, and even some of those in political line against the conditions of terror brought by the paranoia-based intervention. In California as well as other states in the United States, different writers, actors, and directors were taken into prison for unreasonable assumptions for the need of interrogations. Somehow, HUAC was presuming to find some traces of communist ideations from these well-known people. Some of the most prominent persons that had faced the interrogations and even imprisonment by HUAC were the â€Å"Hollywood Ten†. As for the basis of their imprisonment, HUAC claimed that they failed to answer back instantaneously when they were asked if they are involved with any communist plot. Other artists that faced the paranoia of the society were the singer Pete Seefer, playwright Arthur Miller and many others (Zinn and Arnove 378). Implications HUAC to Cold War in California With this scenario, the Californian congressman, James Roosevelt, had issue his proposal of stopping the movement and its campaign. According to Schoenwald (2001), James Roosevelt proposed a resolution to kill the committee (HUAC) while standing up to withering attacks by his colleagues on both sides of the aisle. Despite the declaration of Speaker Sam Rayburn that the proposal would only be ignored, Roosevelt did not concede to surrender (54). Due to the vast contradiction of Californian state towards the movement of HUAC, the chair Francis Walter (1955–1965) had initiated a plan to prompt an attack against Roosevelt. Walter even proposed that HUAC assume jurisdiction over immigrants and passport legislation processing. Walter defended his proposition with claims of assuming these tourism affairs as another threat to internal security. Roosevelt, as the representative of the Californian state, chose to lead the fight against HUAC while being oppressed by some of his political colleagues. With the claims of Roosevelt, Walter with his HUAC made a counterattack move to somehow sabotage and infiltrate San Francisco, most specifically California. HUAC scheduled hearings in San Francisco in May, 1960. The justifications of HUAC for the said investigation were to validate the statements made by the American National Exhibition. Walter was looking forward for the exposure of communists and subversives’ movement within the area; hence, his contemplation for false threat to internal security had succeeded, and he was able to break in San Francisco. According to Schoenwald (2001), other groups like the American Civil Liverties Union and Americans for Democratic Action and liberal politicians joined in the calls for exterminating the committee of HUAC; however, what might have bee just another series of inquiries to defendants pleading the Fifth Amendment became a cause celebre among conservatives, reinvigorating their moribund struggle against the enemy (53-54). The May 1960 hearing occurred in San Francisco, and the main target of investigation was the teachers in the Universities among the city streets of California. With the intense paranoia brought by the conditions of HUAC, the education systems in California Universities and other public schools had become the most widely recognized victims of this campaign. The movement California Teachers Association suggested a profession-suicidal move by means of handling their files to local school boards, which in turn would investigate the teachers in private. After which, several teachers lost their jobs by handling over these files. With this scenario, Roosevelt called forth the attention of the public against the HUAC: â€Å"†¦more than 100 teachers have been in emotional turmoil for 10 months. Their teaching effectiveness has been impaired, and their sense of insecurity has communicated itself to their colleagues†¦ (Cited in Freeman 39). † Prior to this incident, HUAC even sent out subpoenas on April 26th. One of the Californian sophomore student, who is also a SLATE Organization member, named Douglas Wachter called forth an ad hoc among his fellow students in order to protest against the human rights violations inculcated by the HUAC committee. According to Freeman (2003), within a span of three days, there were approximately a thousand students and 300 faculties who had to sign the petition for hearing (40). The news was imprinted in the Daily Cal wherein excerpts from the recognized HUAC documents, which implicated the protest of HUAC abolishment by the students. The student riots had attracted massive student protests within the consorts of California. During the student demonstration, some of them even sang the song, â€Å"We Shall Not Be Moved†. Eventually, the court laid down its decision and the HUAC investigation was postponed and did not continue. In addition, the estimated legal and other facilitated damages that HUAC issue resulted reached the amount of $250,000. The city mayor, Rossevelt, condemned the scenario and stated that this should never happen again within the consorts of California. On the other hand, the protest made by the Berkeley students entitled, â€Å"Operation Abolition†, had gained significant popularity among Universities across the United States. The events of HUAC infiltration were evidently centered in the University of California at Berkely, but it also involved other city universities, such as the San Francisco State College and from Stanford as well. Most evidently, HUAC had to involve 165 professors from San Francisco State College, and 300 from the Berkeley University (Schoenwald 54). The consorts of paranoia brought by the operations of HUAC generally violated the civilian liberties; hence, the starting conditions of cold war had gone intensified. According to the statements made by Schoenwald (2001), the demonstrations convinced conservative observers that not only were subversives still active in the United States but that contemplating shutting down the one legislative body committed to their annihilation was nothing less than presposterous (55). Hence, the major events that contributed to the Cold Wars in California due to HUAC infiltration were triggered by the massive student protests and profession demonstrations. Conclusion In conclusion of the study, the committee of HUAC, designed to supervise and protect the American society from the possible internal threats of communism and Nazism, had abused its authorities and power, which led to the false accusations, violations of human rights, and the destruction of human career properties. Within the American society, the cold war grew due to the massive false paranoia rendered by the HOAC. From the time city mayor Roosevelt contradicted the existence of HOAC, the intrusive aim of their investigation had centered to California. However, massive demonstrations were further triggered by the events that occurred in San Francisco, California wherein the students had launched their abolition request. The consorts of HUAC ended during the 1970s, and the turmoil caused by their paranoia ended. Works Cited Chalmers, David. Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. Rowman Littlefield, 2005. Christenson, Ron. Political Trials in History: From Antiquity to the Present. Transaction Publishers, 1991. Doherty, Thomas, and Anthony Arnove. Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture. Columbia University Press, 2003. Foner, Eric, and John Garathy. The Readers Companion to American History. Houghton Mifflin Books, 1991. Freeman, Jo. At Berkeley in the Sixties: The Education of an Activist, 1961-1965. Indiana University Press, 2003. Linfield, Michael. Freedom Under Fire: U. S. Civil Liberties in Times of War. South End Press, 1990. Schoenwald, Jonathan. A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism. Oxford University Press, 2001. Zinn, Howard, and Anthony Arnove. Voices of a Peoples History of the United States. Seven Stories Press, 2004.

Contribution Of Women In Handicrafts In Lahore Cultural Studies Essay

Contribution Of Women In Handicrafts In Lahore Cultural Studies Essay The present study is about the contribution of women in handicrafts. The current theme of research regarding handicrafts is to find out the type of embroidery work that women do in their houses and also the problems and benefits they get from their skills. While there is a lot of research are presented on this topic but there is a lack of attention on those women and their contribution in handicrafts (embroidery). This study would add a knowledge and information to the existing one. Moreover in Pakistan this work is impossible without womens contribution. So, it would also help us to understand the women problems regarding their works. Handicrafts Handicrafts are items made by hand, often with the use of tools, and are generally artistic and traditional in nature. They include objects of utility and objects of decoration. (Geographical Indications of Goods Act, 1999). Handicrafts are the things that are produce completely by hand or with the help of tool. They also known as craft work in which useful and decorative things are used to complete it. Generally the term is used to traditional way of making things. Handicrafts are unique ideas that represent a culture and tradition of a country and it is most important in terms of economic development. Handicrafts are the mirror of culture, tradition and the beauty of this work is depend upon the aesthetic sense of the workers and also on the quality of material and touch of art.   Pakistan has a rich history of handicrafts. The greate workers of Pakistan have greate skills to show their care in craftsmanship and Pakistani culture promises everything beauty,dignity,form and style. (Shaukat, 2006) Handicrafts are as most important symbol in terms of economic development.For the long time period home based work has helped men and women both an economically.In now a days this market get progress and became internationalized but men get more benefits then women due to that freedom that they have to move anywere in profitable areas and the adaptation of these workers into unorganized sector have made women more insecure and lead them to the explotation of their skills.in recentl. (Gyanendra Dastidar, 2000) The facts is that more wealthy countries have less informal economy but developing countries more expansive one. Denmark has 18 per cent, Nigeria and Thailand 80 per cent informal economy and there is nothing insulting to admit the fact that Pakistan has an informal economy of about 70 per cent. (Bhatti, 2002) Types of handicrafts Handicrafts involve the different types of creation including clothing, religious symbols and jewelry, and different types of paper crafts. (Malcolm Tatum, 2003) There are hundreds if not thousands of different varieties of handicrafts. The following list of crafts is included just for descriptive purposes. The Handicrafts manifested through Brass, onyx and wood, are known to maintain a proud tradition of handicrafts since 1994 in Pakistan and truly signifying the worth of the products. The art of carving on Metal Wood items are the real beauties of our hard working Craftsmen. These items are manufactured in small villages by hardwork craftsman, and can easily be purchased in big cities. Such crafts include, metal lanterns, mirror frames, decoration pieces and more.    (Shaukat, 2006) 3. Pottery  Ã‚   The potter at his wheel is a common scene in every village, uninfluenced by modern glamour. Bahawalpur, Rawalpindi, Gujrat and places around also produce colorful pottery, painted after firing. pottery of Multan is welknown from dates back to the 13th century with obvious traces for woodwork. Chiniot is also known for woodwork. Copper and brass work is done within the walled city of Lahore. Ceramics and glazed pottery are the oldest art in Pakistan, dating back to the Indus Valley Civilization (2500 B.C.E.). Many popular techniques are used to dercorate the pottery and popular technique is to apply blue designs over white glazes.   Pakistani potters are welknown for making the elaborate tiles that decorate mosques and public buildings. (Shaukat, 2006) 4. Woodcrafts Wood-carving, Woosd-turning, Cabinet making, Furniture making, lacquerware include in woodcrafts. Pakistani furniture is known all over the world for its beautiful designs and the asthetic sense of the worker. One of the fine longitudinal cross grains solid wood is known as Rosewood. It is available in the northern areas of Pakistan. In Asia this wood is only available in Pakistan. In local language people calls it SHESHAM. It is also available along the lakes and rivers in Punjab province of Pakistan. Such furniture is famous all over the world for its beauty. (Shaukat, 2006) 5. Jewelry Leather goods Metalwork, including inlaid or engraved swords, boxes, dishes, and tea sets made from silver and gold, as well as jewelry with precious stones and pearls, are important crafts. Jewelry is not limited to necklaces, bracelets, rings but also includes hair and forehead decorations and nose ornaments. Leatherwork and basketry are also important crafts. Sindh baskets are colorful and intricate, while weavers in the Northwest Frontier prefer geometric patterns. (Shaukat, 2006) Embroidersy Embroidery is the art or handicraft of decorating cloth or other materials with needle and thread or wool.Workers also enhance its beauty with uses of other materials such as metal strips, pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. Embroidery is an ancient textile art which uses strands of embroidery floss or wool to create a picture in thread on canvas, linen or other cloth. It forms a part of needlework. Embroidery uses various stitches and combinations of stitches. Each embroidery stitch has a special name to help identify it. Embroidery has recognized as a creative expression of people and it is storage of our oral traditions which have been maintained by the women. (Dhamija, 2004) Embroidered textiles are frequently used to decorate living spaces, temporary or permanent, impressive or modest depend upon choise and the sense of owner. Historically, embroidered textiles shows the wealthy and influence touch of rulers, courtiers, and courtesans. Among South Asias many peoples are identified by this textiles frequently, personal status or religious affiliation. (Dale Carolyn Gluckman, 2007) The folk embroidery tradition runs deep in the Punjab. At the end of the 15th century, the founder of the Sikh religion, Guru Nanak, wrote: Thou art not a worthwhile woman until thou hast embroidered thy own blouse. Village women still practice the craft, also stitching bed and cushion covers and a variety of other cloths, but the art probably reached its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (Beste, Michael, 2009) Types of embroidery There are many different styles of embroidery, often with regional variations. Chikan embroidery Chikan embroidery is a fine needle-craft done by hand mostly using white thread on a variety of fabrics from cotton and silk to synthetics. It is the most famous fine art of embroidery at word level, and is famous not only in India, but also abroad. (Sarna Shukla, 1994) Zari embroideries From the second half of 18th century until the early 20th century, two different types of gold embroidery found ready patrons; these were: zardozi work, heavy silver-gilt thread work upon a foundation padded with cotton thread or paper, on velvet or sation ground; and Kalabattu work: light delicate embroidery, in gilt-silver or silver threads, strips of gilt-silver, gilt-silver sequins, upon fine silk cotton or muslin. (Dhamija, 2004) White work White work is embroidered in white thread, on pure white fabric, it is not at all difficult, and is cheap to achieve. The tools you will need for white work embroidery are minimal. Firstly, a nice piece of fabric. Depending on the kind of item you wish to produce, you may start out with high thread count white muslin, or an even weave or linen. Appliquà © work Appliquà © work is every kind of embroidery which, being worked solidly on one material is then cut out and lay down upon another, and secured by various ornamental stitches. (Dhamija, 2004) China work This work was almost entirely Chinese in design and techniques. It was done on saries, shawls, borders, children dresses and a variety of costumes. The fabric used was mainly chines silk or fine satin of red, purple and black colour. The embroidery was done sometimes with floss-silk and more often with tightly spun, two ply silk. (Dhamija, 2004) Phulkari The simple and sparsely embroided work for everyday use was called phulkari. It was done on odhnis or shawls for everyday use on coarse handspun khadi cloth, mostly brownish-red, usng floss-silk in darning stitched worked from the reverse side of fabric. (Dhamija, 2004) Kashmir embroidery The main varieties of Kashmir being namda, work on felt-wool, gabba, a type of appliquà © work, using waste woolen fabrics and kashida wrought on various kinds of clothing and the cloth used is either silk or wool. (Dhamija, 2004) Role of women in handicrafts Home based workers are the most marginalized and one of the largest groups of workers in this sector, with an estimated 300 million workers worldwide. Home based work has been identified as work that is undertaken in the home. They are predominately women, located in various occupations including the assembly of electronic components of fans, washing machines, irons, or the manufacture of glass bangles, items of pottery; small scale packaging and assembling of consumables, hand knitting, embroidery, stitching, handicrafts, garments and weaving of carpets and shawls. It also includes clerical and teaching homework and the supply of raw materials. (Carr, Chen Tate, 2000) According to World Bank report after agriculture, the most important source of womens employment is home-based work. (Aurat publication, 1997) The statistics on the informal economy are unreliable, The number of women in the informal labour force possibly stands at 12.79 millions, of whom 8.52 million women, constituting 75 per cent of the total informal sector workers, were home-based workers.'(Aurat publication, 1997) A survey of the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) conducted in 2003 shows that 77 percent of the total female labor force falls within the purview of the informal sector, while 53 percent are classified as home based workers. They also told that most of working women have to hand over their earnings to their parents or husbands. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries women produced and consumed the crafts for the domestic interior. They made crafts at various levels in society and having different motives. At one level, it may have been artistic self-expression; at another level to support financial necessity, or on a third level it may have been for pastime. (Edward, 2006) Informal Economy comprises of small enterprises of one or more persons, with casual or regular employees of less than 10 people. The workers in this sector fall into the following three categories: Self-employed women Home-based workers Self-employed women A woman who is self-employed works for herself instead of as an employee of another person or organization, drawing income from a trade or business. Self-employed workers are paid directly by clients or by their business, and some proportion of these payments will be due to the government as income tax. (Haq, 2003) Home-based workers Home based women workers fall into two categories: (i) dependent workers who work on a piece rate and usually work for middle persons in a contract chain; and (ii) independent home based workers or own-account workers who produce goods for direct sale through street stalls, shops or the local village and sometimes to traders or subcontractors. (Haq, 2003) In the last ten years women have become more energetic in business and the private sector. Their participation found in many areas, in which small scale projects as well as large scale private projects are included. Small scale rural projects turns into larg scale private projects. There are a lot of networks which have been established for the women in business. It also empowers the women of a home-base producer or in private sector. (Brouwer, Harris Tanaka, 1998) The unplanned home-based workers represent an important part of working population. There are large number of income producing activities are included in home-based sector in which mostly women workers are engaged. From embroidery to food processing and from craft to coir work are included in these activities. Both in rural and urban areas, there is given very little importance to this unorganized sector and it is due to the workers condition; the working conditions are unspeakable, the wages are extremely low and workers face great worries and exploitations. Home based industrial work is one of the least regulated, least managed, and most risky systems of industrial production however a large number of women workers are tired in this sector just because of lack of personal resources, like education and awareness, non-availability of employment opportunities, and normative practices which control womens mobility outside home. (Sarna Shukla, 1994) Liberalisation has improved the employment opportunities for women in some sectors especially in the crafts sector. So there are increased the number of women in participation of home-base craft sector like in embroidery, lace making, weaving and printed textiles. In some cases empowerment of women also increases but in most cases, the working condition of the women workers is poor and they are paid less than men. (Krishnaraj, 1992 cited by Rao, 2005) Women have a great work load in their lives; they have a double burden, to earn income from their work and also have to fulfill their household responsibilities. They laboring the whole day; generally they work 12 to 16 hours per day and losing their health and energy both. (Durand, 1975 cited by United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific, 1987) Being a embroidery skilled worker, their work requires women to sit long hours in the same restless position and sometime they have to ignore there household duties that resulting in tension, qurels and a lot of deases like eye, back bone, shoulders as well as other mental and emotional problems depending upon the physical environment in which these women live and work. (Sarna Shukla, 1994) Wage discrimination is obvious and usually common against women in Asia. Wage rates are as low as one-third or it may be observed that women always paid less of those paid to men. In Jobs also, there are described carefully to discriminate the labour practices involved; female positions typically require few skills and give poor salary. (United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific, 1987) In handicrafts the embroidery work is a traditional art but many women faced some difficulty of marketing their skill. Generally simple embroidery piece do not have sale value except it is the part of gift items.And if the women contect the shop keeper or designers she may sale her prodect but beang a women she is restricted to go outside .so, she have only those customers to know them personally. (Gyanendra Dastidar, 2000) Mostly the womens work is under-reported in Pakistan. Purdah is the main reason that stops any direct communication between the enumerator and the female respondent. The household head, usually a male, reports any female activity. Because purdah is a status representation, related with material well-being, and womens work is frowned upon, it is expected that female labour is under-reported. (Whyte, 1982 cited by United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific, 1987) In some traditional industries like jute and cotton textile, mechanization has contributed in the rejection of female employment. Women represent 90 percent of the workers in these industries such as the making of embroidery. But intermediaries and middlemen who provide the raw materials and market the final product, make them badly exploited by only paying the women minimal wages. (Bhatty n.d.; Indian Council of Social Science Research, 1975 cited by United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific, 1987) Crafts production is culturally recognized activity. The skills present in the economic sector and many women adopt and practice it. But they dont get to recognition and value not in the economy and not in the household level. They dont have any financial records, on average it accounts for less than 1% of a households income. This is not much to lead toward progress. There are too much women who participate in home-craft production but they just have little impact on it.womens are badly exploted by the men even they work for batterly then men. (Freedman Wai, 1988) s NGOs should help the home based women workers in the shape groups. Those groups should supply raw materials, make sure appropriate and timely payments, arrange for the credit and support in design development. (Ministry of Labour, 2000). This is the need of hour to arrange female workers into cooperatives and other organizations where production and marketing are included, and it should sported by the government to stop this high rate of women exploitation. (United Nations Economic and social commission for Asia and the pacific, 1987)

The Character of Uncle Ben in Death of a Salesman Essay -- Death Sales

The Character of Uncle Ben in Death of a Salesman The character of Ben in Arthur Miller's Death of A Salesman serves a complex dramatic function.   He is Willy Loman's real brother, the idealized memory of that brother, and an aspect of Willy's own personality, and these distinct functions are sometimes simultaneous.   Through his aggressive actions and vibrant speech, the audience is given a strong contrast to Willy's self-doubt and self-contradiction.   In addition, the encounters between Ben and Willy serve as an extended examination of professional and familial morality.   Finally, Ben personifies the burden of Willy's expectations in regards to both material success and the proper role of a father. The most fundamental of Ben's characteristics evident in his language is his haste.   Appearing in the middle of Willy and Charley's card game, Ben's first words are, "I only have a few minutes"   (45).   He makes his departure shortly after announcing, "I'll be late for my train"   (52).   During his second appearance, he declares, "I haven't much time" and "I've got to go"   (85-6).   These lines are emblematic.   In the two scenes with his brother that are based on Willy's memories, Ben comes and goes when he chooses, despite sometimes desperate pleas that he stay.   This is in direct contrast to Willy, whose life has been structured around appointments and whose livelihood depends on the forbearance of near strangers. Because of his position as a traveling salesman, Willy never controls the parameters of his interaction with other people.   He calls upon customers and must depend upon their willingness to see him in order to make a living.   Willy's affair with The Woman is only partially motivated by a need for sexual fulfillme... ...l Ben.   The briefness of these meetings also serves to convince Willy of his own inferiority by concealing any difficulties that might have existed in Ben's life.   Ben has exactly the wrong degree of interaction with Willy.   If he were entirely absent, he would not haunt his younger brother so.   If he were more fully present, he would either have been of more comfort to Willy, or have been revealed as a more fully human, less mythic character.   As it is, Ben serves only to remind him of his past loss, emphasize his current failure, and provide the means of his final destruction. Works Cited Centola, Steven R.   "Family Values in Death of A Salesman."   CLA Journal.   37.1 (1993):   29-41. Jacobsen, Irving F.   "Family Dreams in Death of A Salesman."   American Literature.   47 (1975):   247-58. Miller, Arthur.   Death of A Salesman.   New York:   Penguin, 1976.

Art and culture of Orissa Essay

Orissa boasts of a rich and vibrant cultural heritage naturally caused by a long history of different rulers of varied cultural and artistic inclinations. Further confluence of racial streams has also enriched the art, craft and culture of Orissa in no uncertain terms. Orissa is particularly famous for its brass work, silver work, terracotta art objects and appliquà © work, besides its unique handloom. The culture of Orissa, India, makes for an interesting study. Situated along the Bay of Bengal coast, Orissa is an Indian state that exemplifies the unique and commendable blend of ancient glory and modern initiative. Orissa is a place where nature unfurls her one of the most beauteous aspects. Unsullied beaches, rivers, gorgeous waterfalls and majestic hills all contribute in accentuating the appeal of the state as a popular tourist destination. The culture of Orissa also generates considerable interest among both the domestic and the foreign travelers. Orissa is largely rural and the traditional values that are still retained form an integral aspect of the Orissa culture. Orissa’s strategic geographical location has engendered the assimilation of the culture of the Aryans and the Dravidians. The culture of Orissa can very well be described as an Indo-cultural synthesis. Orissa art and craft constitutes a major portion of the culture of Orissa. The art of Orissa underwent myriad changes and is a product of a number of assimilations and imbibitions. Orissa is known for its sand arts, Patta Chitra, Palm Leaf Paintings, Jhoti, Chita and Muruja. The Orissan artists are unsurpassed in their skill. Orissa boasts of a glorious tradition of dance and music. The figurines of dancers and musicians gracing the walls of the quaint temples in Orissa speak volumes about the rich musical heritage of the state. Odissi music is the classical art that has imbibed the elements common to the Hindustani and Karnatik music. The Odissi dance, Chhau Dance, Mahari dance, the jatra, pala and Daskarhia comprise of an inextricable part of the culture of Orissa. The  sacred environs of Lord Jagannath temple, the eroticism of Konark’s Sun temple, the wondrous caves of Jainism, the mystical monasteries of Buddhism, the paintings of folklore and the weaver’s magic; all stand as meek evidences of an eloquent past and continuing golden present of Orissa. FAIRS AND FESTIVALS Besides celebrating the important festivals like Dusshera, Durga Puja, Diwali and Holi, Orissa also has its own share of numerous festivals celebrated with frolic and vivacity. The most prominent Puri festival comprises of Rath Yatra, Chandan Yatra and Devasnana purnima. While the Puri Beach festival is a fun lovers fest, the Konark Dance festival marks a befitting tribute to the magnificent Sun temple at Konark.

The Microwave Plasma Enhanced Engineering Essay

When diamond is mentioned, people will automatically believe about the cost that valued by the society. Why diamond, a type of gemstones, will be so much more than others? Diamond is non merely a shinny rock. It has a batch of great and alone belongingss such as highest hardness and thermic conduction of any bulk stuff. These belongingss determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools. Besides, the optical feature is something that must be discuss in diamond. With highly stiff lattice, the optical features become important. However, diamond still can pollute by few types of drosss, such as B and N, which consequences in some colour for diamond. In this paper, a reappraisal of diamond will be presented.How diamond is madeNaturally, diamonds are formed at high force per unit area and high temperature conditions bing at deepnesss of 140-190 kilometer in the Earth mantle. They are bought near to Earth surface through volcanic eruptions by a magma, whi ch cools into pyrogenic stone known as kimberlites and lamproites. Figure 1shows a stage diagram of C. From Figure 1, diamond is stable at high force per unit areas and temperatures. Graphite, nevertheless, is the stable signifier of C under ordinary temperature and force per unit area conditions. One method of synthesising diamond is to subject graphite to conditions of about 55,000 ambiances and temperatures of about 2000 & A ; deg ; -C. However, even though C is non at the minimal energy province, it does non spontaneously convert from diamond to graphite. Since we know that diamonds are form at high force per unit area and high temperature. Research originally synthesis diamonds under same conditions, high force per unit area high temperature ( HPHT ) . Figure 1 Phase diagram for C. At sufficiently high temperatures and force per unit areas diamond is the stable. At lower temperatures and force per unit areas, black lead is the stable signifier. Under ordinary conditions for temperature and force per unit area, near 1 standard pressures and room temperature, diamond may be considered a metastable signifier of C. ( Reinhard ) The everyday belongingss of diamond such as hardness and high thermic conduction make it an of import new stuff in a broad scope of applications. However, the high cost of stuff production has limited the commercial used of diamond thin movies to a few applications. Today the engineering is able create artefactual diamond by chemical vapour deposition ( CVD ) . CVD is a method of bring forthing man-made diamond by making the fortunes necessary for C atoms in a gas to settle on a substrate in crystalline signifier. It is common to happen grammatical crystals with about equal development of ( 111 ) and ( 100 ) faces ( Figure 2 ) . ( DeVries ) Diamond grows by CVD frequently involves feeding changing sums of gases into a chamber, stimulating them and supplying conditions for diamond growing on the substrate. The gases include a C beginning and typically include H every bit good. However the sums used depends on the type of diamond being grown. In CVD of diamond, the factors driving cost include low reagent use, low deposition rates, high-energy ingestion, big thermic direction tonss at the substrate, and capital equipment costs. For successful consequence, diamond deposition depends on different chemical and conveyance procedures happening in the gas stage and on the surface. ( See Figure 4 for the ascertained forms of as-grown natural diamonds, high temperature high force per unit area ( HPHT ) grown synthetics and chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) grown diamonds, including the measure patterns on the different faces ) Figure 2 Diamond crystals from CVD deposition. The largest dimension is about 20 jlm. ( DeVries ) All diamond CVD processes under a extremely energetic activation phase in the gas stage. It lead to two intents which are to disassociate the hydrocarbon precursor molecule into fragments that react more readily at the deposition surface and to disassociate molecular H to make a superequilibrium concentration of gas-phase H atoms. ( See Figure 3 for different technique of C dissolved in H vs. temperature ) Hot-filament reactors, microwave plasma reactors, DC arcjet reactors, and burning are most commonly energy used as diamond CVD reactors. These reactors have a few common characteristics and that ‘s why they are able to bring forth high quality diamond movies. They all have a big sum of energy, in the signifier of electrical or chemical free energy, is input to accomplish dissociation of molecular H and the hydrocarbon feedstock. Reasonably low force per unit areas are used to forestall three-body recombination of H to organize molecular H. High gas-phase temperature is produc ed in the activation zone, and inactive or active chilling is employed to keep a substrate temperature in the vicinity. However, they are different from the conveyance processes. Hot-filament and microwave plasma are dominated by diffusion which mean there is no thermic, speed, or concentration boundary bed. Linear gradients in temperature, speed, or species concentration between the excitement part ( hot fibril or plasma ball ) and the deposition surface in both reactors are frequently found. However, the disadvantage is growing rate is slow. DC arcjet CVD and burning is characterized by high speeds ; thin boundary beds in temperature, speed, and concentration are formed near the growing surface. In the followers, the item of each technique will be introduced. Figure 3 Differential solubility of C in H for different CVD diamond methods. Figure 4 Idealized morphologies of natural, HPHT-grown and CVD-grown diamonds. For the { 111 } and { 100 } faces characteristic orientations o f growing stairss are besides indicated. ( Nazare and Neves )High force per unit area and high temperature ( HPHT )Artificial Diamond is original made by high force per unit area and high temperature ( HPHT ) It is still widely used because of it ‘s comparatively low cost. It is typically processed under a force per unit area of 5GPa at 1500 & A ; deg ; C. There are two common systems ; Belt system and Bars system. In belt system, a immense hydraulic imperativeness with anvils and a ring molded construction are used. The upper and lower anvils supply the force per unit area burden to a cylindrical inner cell and a belt of pre-stressed steel sets confines the internal. Anvils serve as electrodes and supply electrical current to the compressed cell. A fluctuation of the belt imperativeness uses hydraulic force per unit area to restrict the internal force per unit area. Figure 5 is a conventional illustration of a belt system where diamond seeds are placed at the underside of the imperativeness. While the internal portion of imperativeness is heated, the liquefied metal dissolves the high pureness C beginning. The liquefied metal so transports to the diamond seeds and precipitates. Colorless diamond can be synthesized if the N is removed by blending little sum of Ti with the metal. ( International Diamond Lab ) Figure 5 aˆ?This is a conventional illustration of a Belt type HPHT imperativeness. ( International Diamond Lab ) BARS system is developed at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk. It is really similar to the belt type system. It is made up by eight outer anvils with a spherical outer form to which force per unit area is applied and six inner anvils to multiply the force per unit area to the sample. BARS system is the most compact, efficient, and economical of all the diamond-producing imperativenesss. ( International Diamond Lab )Hot-filament CVDHot-filament CVD is besides called thermally activated CVD. It is one of the earliest developed attacks to low force per unit area synthesis of diamond. A furnace lining metal, normally tungsten, is used as a fibril, is heated to high temperature around 2300 & A ; deg ; C. The temperature can be reach by opposition warming and the high temperature aid to trip the hydrocarbon-hydrogen gas mixture. The fibril is located a few millimetres above the substrate besides provides warming for the substrate. The hydrocarbon-hydrogen gas mixture is allowe d to flux across the hot fibril, where it is activated. Hot-filament CVD reactors are cheap and easy to build. The filament temperature, the place of the substrate with regard to the fibril, and the gas flow kineticss play of import factors in the procedure. However, there are several disadvantages of this technique such as taint of the diamond movie by the fibril, eroding and sagging of the fibril, and a comparatively slow growing rate. It is besides necessary to provide changeless power throughout a deposition utilizing a proper power accountant but the uniformity of the substrate temperature is hard to keep when utilizing multiple fibrils. ( Reinhard ) Figure 6 Conventional diagram of the hot fibril CVD procedure demoing the basic elements.Microwave plasma-enhanced CVD ( MPECVD )Microwave plasma enhanced CVD is widely used for diamond deposition. A magnetron is normally used to bring forth micro-cook energy at 2.45 GHz and a wave-guide assembly is used to match the energy to a resonating pit. MPECVD is an electrodless procedure, which is an advantage over other techniques, and there is no taint from the electrode stuff. The microwave plasma excitement of H generates superequilibrium concentrations of atomic H. The hits of negatrons with gas atoms and molecules generate high ionisation fractions. ( Reinhard ) Figure 7 Conventional apparatus of the CVD synthesis of diamond. ( Markus )Direct current ( DC ) arcjet discharge techniqueDC arcjet discharge is a really high growing rate procedure. Normally, this technique will be usage to synthesis midst and freestanding diamond substrates. A DC arcjet discharge reactor for diamond deposition consists of a gas injection nose, composed of a rod cathode, which is normally made of wolframs, concentric with a tubing anode. Gass are allowed to flux between the cathode and anode. Gass will be spray out from an opening in the anode so a high temperature discharge jet is created and sustained by a DC electromotive force across the electrode. The substrate is located downstream from the jet watercourse on a water-cooled substrate phase. Carbon precursor and graphite etchant gases would be introduced at different locations depending on the coveted activation temperature. Although this technique is frequently used because of the high growing rate, there is several disadvantages of it such as the movie can undergo from high compressive emphasiss, microvoids, and high surface raggedness. ( Reinhard )CombustionCombustion is good cognize for its scalable nature, minimum public-service corporation demands, and significantly cut down capital costs relative to plasma assisted procedures. The most of import parametric quantity in burning synthesis is the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio, defined as R = O2: C2H. At values of R near 1.0, a impersonal fire is achieved, which is defined as the status where the feather part merely disappears because all the ethyne is consumed in the primary fire. The diamond growing regimes as a map of composing are showed in Figure 9. The highest quality diamond is obtained in somewhat rich fires, when oxygen-to-acetylene ratio is about 0.85-1.0. The value of R at which a impersonal fire occurs is dependent on both burner design and entire flow rate. Substrate temperature is control in a scope from 950-1650K during burning CVD. With high temperatures, substrates has been limited to stuffs such as Si, aluminum oxide, and diamond. However, it is non easy to mensurate the substrate temperature in burning CVD due to the utmost heat fluxes present. Substrate temperature controls growing rate and morphology. As the substrate temperature additions, the growing rate is relative. ( See Figure 9 ) However, after the growing rate reaches its upper limit, an look of a rapi d diminution in both the quality and the growing rate is observed. ( Reinhard ) Figure 8 Two designs of atmospheric level fire burners: ( a ) a coflow design and ( B ) a cornet bell design ( Reinhard ) Figure 9 The consequence of substrate temperature on growing rate observed in burning CVD of diamond. In atmospheric torches the maximal growing rate occurs at substrate temperatures between 1450 and 1650 K ( Reinhard )MetastableDiamond is uncommon because of two grounds. First, the dynamicss of graphite formation are much faster than the dynamicss of diamond formation in normal status. Second, a big activation energy barrier between black lead and diamond prevents thermic activation of diamond into black lead. ( See Figure 10 ) When diamond is synthesized under conditions where black lead is the stable stage of C, the consequence of synthesising diamond is normally failed. It is because the denseness of diamond is greater than the denseness of black lead. ( Anthony ) At ordinary temperatures and force per unit areas, although diamond is non the minimal energy province of C, it is besides non an unstable phase of C. ( see Figure 1 ) Therefore, if C atoms are in the diamond lattice spacial agreement, the solid does non spontaneously change over to graphite under low temperature, low force per unit area conditions. Formation of diamond from nascent C incorporating species under metastable conditions is both thermodynamically allowed and readily achieved under proper deposition conditions. It is the lower temperatures and force per unit areas associated with this method of diamond synthesis that have offered the capableness of direct deposition of diamond on a assortment of substrates and have opened the possibility of new applications of diamond. For many such applications, the diamond thickness demand be merely on the order of microns ; hence the constructions are referred to as diamond movies. ( Reinhard ) Figure 10 Energy diagram of C ( Anthony )StructurePure diamond is composed merely by C and arranged in the diamond lattice. ( See Figure 11 In theory, pure diamonds are crystalline and colorless. ) In diamond lattice, each C atom has four nearest neighbours in the tetrahedral agreement associated with sp3 chemical bonds. The nearest neighbour distance is 1.54 & A ; Aring ; and the unit cell dimension is 3.567 & A ; Aring ; . The denseness of diamond is 3.515g/cm3. The measure of diamond is normally referred to carats, where one carat is equal to 200mg. ( Reinhard ) However, quality of diamond is considerable because both natural and man-made diamond may incorporate drosss and defects. Diamonds occur in assorted colour and these are caused by defects, including replaced drosss and structural defect. These defects will impact the light soaking up. Therefore, diamonds are characterized into type I, type II and some subtypes, with the former containing N as an dross and the latter being basically nitrogen free. ( John, Polwart and Troupe ) ( a ) ( B ) Figure 11 a ) Conventional diagram of carbon-carbon bonding in diamond and black lead ( Anthony ) B ) 3D diamond latticeType IType I diamonds in which impurity-related optical and paramagnetic soaking up are dominated by N defects. Normally, type I diamonds are crystalline to 300 nanometers. ( Robertson R. ) In general, the dross content of natural type I diamonds is more varied compared to that of type II diamonds. The most apparent difference between type I and II diamonds comes from IR soaking up spectra, which are considered to be the chief standard for this distinction. ( See Figure 12 for Refraction index of type I and type II ) About 98 % of natural diamonds contain nitrogen with concentrations noticeable in optical soaking up. 74 % of them have a N content high plenty to be decidedly classified as type I. Nitrogen is regularly nowadays in natural diamonds at degrees every bit high as 200 to 4000 ppm. ( Zaitsev ) In type I, there are three subtypes, type Ia, type Ib, and type Ic. Type Ia contains N in farily significant sums of the order of o.1 % which most natural diamonds belong to this type. Type Ib besides contains N but in spread substitutional signifier which most of man-made diamonds are this type. ( Markus ) Type Ic include diamonds that contain high concentration of disruptions. Even type Ic does n't truly related to contaimination of N but the feature of type Ic is categorized in type I. Type Ic has the absoption continuum at wavelength below 900nm and a extremum at 560nm. ( Zaitsev ) Figure 12 Refraction index of type IIa and type I natural diamonds in the UV spectral part ( Zaitsev )Type IIType II includes diamonds demoing no optical and paramagnetic soaking up due to nitrogen-related defects. The measure of N found in type II is really small. ( Below 1017cm-3 ) Type II diamonds are exhibited optical transparence up to 230 nanometers ( Robertson R. ) . However, it is rare to happen natural diamonds without nitrogen-related defects in soaking up. Merely 1 to 2 % of type II diamonds are found in nature. ( Zaitsev ) There are two subtypes are in type II, type IIa and type IIb. Type IIa is non effectual by N and this type of diamonds has enhanced optical and thermic belongingss. However, they are rare to happen in natural. Type IIb is a really pure type which has semiconducting belongingss and this type of diamond is normally find in bluish and highly rare in nature. ( Markus )Influence of defects and drossNitrogen does non strongly act upon the refractile index of diamond in the seeable spectral part. Therefore the refractile index for types I and II natural diamonds may non differ by more than 1 % . ( Robertson R. ) Since there is no definite inclination for discriminatory double refraction of diamonds of any type, it indicated that nitrogen dross does non straight act upon the double refraction of diamond. However there is a tendency such that natural diamonds of mean size, with an enhanced double refraction, are ultraviolet conveying. Diamonds with a low double refraction are normally ultraviolet-opaque and N is the caused for this consequence. Diamond with low N, type II, have a really distorted stressed crystal lattice. ( Zaitsev ) The double refraction of diamond is caused by fictile distortion, elastic distortion near inclusion, growing striations, growing sector boundaries, disruptions, grain boundaries, and diamond-substrate boundaries. The phenomena occur in both types of diamonds. The highest double refraction is found in fragments of natural diamonds where dodecahedral diamonds shows the least double refraction. Defects arises from sheets of stacking mistakes are expected to ensuing the double refraction contrast weaker than from partial disruptions. However, partial disruptions or stacking fault sheets will be seen merely the background double refraction is really low. ( Zaitsev )PropertiesDiamonds have some great belongingss that other stuff still can non be compared and that is the ground why people would wish to understand how diamond is formed and synthesis diamond to cut down the cost of the stuff. Diamond is good known for high thermic conduction, high electrical electric resistance, low coefficie nt of clash, high grade of chemical inertness, high optical scattering, big energy spread, low infrared soaking up, and high dislocation electromotive force. See Table 1 for outstanding belongingss of diamond. Table 1 Some belongingss of diamond ( Markus )Thermal PropertiesAs mentioned, diamond has high thermic conduction. For high quality individual crystals, normally type IIa, the thermic conduction, ? , is about 22W/cm & A ; deg ; C at room temperature. This belongings is due to the stiffness of diamond bond and the diamond construction, which rise to a high acoustic speed and a really high characteristic temperature. Recently, research worker has reported the best thermic conduction of the movie is about 11W/cm & A ; deg ; C. For midst movie, the conduction is about17W/cm & A ; deg ; C at room temperature. ( J.E. Graebner ) Figure 13 indicates the relation between thermic conduction and movie thickness, where thermic conduction additions with movie thickness. Thermal conducitivy besides depends on grain boundary. Diamond ‘s thermic conduction additions with decreasing temperature, making a upper limit of 42 W/cm-K near 80 K, after making the upper limit the thermic conduction les senings. Impurities, such as N, cut down the thermic conduction. Type I diamonds with 0.1 % N merely have 50 % thermic conduction values of type II diamonds in room temperature. Isotropic pureness increases the thermic conduction. Man-made diamond crystals grows with pure carbon-12 have thermic conductions 50 % higher than those of natural diamond for which the atomic weight is 12.01 because the stuff contains 1.1 % carbon-13. ( Zaitsev ) Figure 13Measured thermic conduction at 25 & A ; deg ; C for five samples ( squares ) . Solid circles show the derived conduction. The horizontal dotted line indicates the typical conduction reported for individual crystal high quality ( Type IIa ) diamond. ( J.E. Graebner )Optical PropertiesDiamond movies are normally crystalline in the infrared, with the exclusion of the carbon-hydrogen absorbing sets centered at about 2900cm-1, weak absorbing in the seeable spectrum, and increasing absorbing with diminishing wavelength in the UV visible radiation. The optical spread value is range from 0.38 to 2.72 for diamond movies. ( A. ) The index of refraction, both the existent portion N and fanciful portion K, and its spectroscopic fluctuation has been found to be dependent on the readying conditions and H content of the movies. Its value at 632.8 nanometers can be adjusted from 1.7 to 2.4 by seting the deposition conditions. ( A. ) This refractile index is big comparison to other crystalline stuff. With big refractile index, it is besides found big contemplation coefficient and a little angle for entire internal contemplation. ( Zaitsev ) The index of refraction is besides affected by the H content in the diamond movies and by and large additions with diminishing concentration of edge H. It is, nevertheless, dependant on the concentration of edge H and non entire H content in the movie. A higher index of refraction normally indicates diamond with stronger crosslinking, higher hardness, and better wear opposition. ( A. ) Diamond is besides photoconductive. There is a strong photoconductive extremum at 225 nanometers due to excitement of negatrons across the set spread in pure diamond, and in B doped diamond there are besides peaks from 1.4 to 3.5 ?m due to excitement of the deep-lying acceptor degrees. ( Reinhard )Electrical belongingssThe electrical belongings of diamond movie is good known for big set spread. Diamond have a modest bandgap. The energy set construction of diamond exhibits an indirect energy spread with a value of 5.47 electron volt at 300 K. This is sufficiently big that at near room temperature the intrinsic bearer concentration is negligible and the stuff is an dielectric with a dielectric invariable of about 5.7. ( Zaitsev ) ( See Figure 14 for set construction ) In an dielectric the valency negatrons form strong bonds between neighbouring atoms and accordingly these bonds are hard to interrupt. Thus, the bandgap is big and there are no free negatrons to take part in current condu ctivity at or near room temperature. ( Markus ) Figure 14 Activation energies for some drosss in diamond. B is boron for P type, P is phosphorus for n-type, and N is nitrogen. ( Markus ) The set construction of diamond movie is assumed to dwell merely a mobility spread, where bearers shacking in spread provinces are localized. The mobility spread produces semiconducting material behaviour, nevertheless, the high denseness of localised spread provinces leads to low apparent bearer mobilities and significantly degrades the semiconducting belongingss of stuff. Diamond movies normally have high electrical electric resistances from 102-1016? , depending on the deposition status ( A. ) The electrical conduction of diamond is more sensitive to drosss than the thermic conduction. The electrical electric resistance can be reduced by several orders of magnitude through incorporation of metals or N in the movies. The lessening of electric resistance by incorporation of dopants possibly related to a dopant induced graphitization. However, more groundss are needed to turn out. Boron doped p-type diamond exists in nature. The growing of B doped diamond movies by CVD techniques has been achieved by adding B incorporating molecules to the gas mixture in either a microwave or in a hot fibril reactor ensuing in the growing of B incorporating p-type diamond movies. ( A. ) ( R. ) N-type doping is much more complicated. It is still questionable about the possible giver atom that will give a shallow plenty energy degree in the spread to be sufficiently ionized at room temperature. Most late clear giver activity is phosphorus doped for n-type diamond. In Figure 15, the dependance of the electric resistance on measurement temperature. Similar inclines are obtained for all samples proves that in this temperature run the conductivity mechanism is thermally activated, with an activation energy of 0.46 electron volt, instead independent of growing conditions. ( R. ) Figure 15 Temperature dependance of the electric resistance of n-type diamond, doped with different sums ( ppm ) of P ( 300,800 K ) . ( R. )B. Mechanical PropertiesDiamond is the hardest known substance. Diamond besides has the lowest squeezability, the highest elastic modulus, and the highest isotropous velocity of sound ( 18,000 m/sec ) of any known materia ( Nazare and Neves ) . The grade of hardness is quantified in footings of both opposition to indenture and scratch ( or abrasion ) opposition. In footings of squeezability, the ratio of tensile emphasis to linear strain, or Young ‘s modulus, is 1050 GPa, a value about five times higher than that of steel. However under different methods of proving, the Young ‘s modulus is different and C11, C12, C44. Table 2 provides the Young ‘s moduli of diamond with different trial methods. Because of its brickle nature, diamond is non peculiarly strong. ( Markus ) Table 2 Elastic moduli of diamond ( GPa ) ( Nazare and Neves ) Method C11 C12 C44 Ultrasonics 950 390 430 X raies 1100 330 440 Brillouin 949 151 521 The mechanical strength of diamond is influenced by a figure of important factors, including the applied emphasis system, the ambient temperature and the grade of both internal ( drosss ) and external ( surface coating ) flawlessness. Fracture occurs when a certain degree of emphasis is applied and the manner of failure will be that which requires the smallest emphasis. Materials, where the bonding is preponderantly covalent or where there is a significant grade of covalent bonding, have a big built-in lattice opposition to dislocation gesture and failure occurs at low emphasiss, below the theoretical break emphasis. Diamond, as with any other crystalline stuff, can neglect by either brickle break, cleavage, or in a ductile manner, flow by a shear procedure. Although thermic belongingss and electrical conduction are both extremely affected by N, there is no clear grounds found that mechanical belongingss are clear related to N. ( Nazare and Neves )Highly inert chemicallyDiamond is ex tremely inert chemically, except for two state of affairss. It is susceptible to oxidising agents at high temperatures. For illustration, if diamond is heated in the presence of O, oxidization Begins at around 900 K. Besides, diamond is capable to chemical onslaught by certain metals at high temperatures. These include carbide formers such as wolframs, Ta, Ti, and Zr every bit good as dissolvers for C such as Fe, Co, manganese, nickel, Cr, and Pt. ( Zaitsev )ApplicationsDiamond is a really utile stuff because of the outstanding belongingss including high thermic conduction, high electrical electric resistance, low coefficient of clash, high grade of chemical inertness, high optical scattering, big energy spread, low infrared soaking up, and high dislocation electromotive force. With these belongingss, diamond is used for diverse application besides jewellery. They are normally used in mechanical application, optical applications, thermic applications, and sensor applications. Diamon d can be used for scratchy and wear opposition coating for cutting tools, lenses, Windowss for power optical masers, diffractive optical elements, heat sinks for power transistors, semiconducting material optical maser arrays, solar blind photodetector, and radiation hard and chemically inert sensors. Table 3 Future application countries for diamond electronics. ( Markus )Film editing ToolsSingle crystal diamond is used for coating of modulated or layered composing of two or more passage metal compounds. It is common to utilize diamond coating for certain types of crunching wheels or cutting of extremely scratchy metals and metals. There are two ways to use diamond on to the film editing tools. First, turning comparatively thick beds of CVD diamond from which separate freestanding pieces are obtained. These pieces are so brazed onto a cutting tool. Second, straight deposited diamond onto the film editing tools. ( Markus ) Often, high-quality diamonds are selected for usage in dressing tools for non-ferrous metals, aluminium, brass bronze, ceramics, black lead, and glass fiber-reinforced construction. ( Markus ) ( Hammond and Evans ) Single-point diamond is mounted in a metal matrix. They are normally used to dress and leave or reconstruct the needed geometric form to certain scrat chy wheels. Two typically signifiers of such film editing tools are single-point and multi-point. Today, individual or multi-point cutters include milling, turning, drilling, cutting-off and slitting. ( Hammond and Evans )Demonstrated surfacing diamond onto hardmetalsHardmetals are the most valuable and of import substrates for coated tools, due to their intrinsic belongingss and their broad scope of mechanical belongingss. They consist of WC and Co with add-ons of TiC, ( Ta5Nb ) C, and VC, which chiefly change their hardness and wear opposition. The sum of Co binder is mostly responsible for ductileness or crispness. Hardmetals have been used as wear parts and film editing tools for decennaries, with and without surfacing applications. Normally, successful diamond coatings on WC-Co substrates have no or a really low sum of three-dimensional carbides ( TiC ) and besides a comparatively low Co content. Both Co and TiC add-ons increase the thermic enlargement coefficient of the hardmetal and cut down the adhesion of the diamond coating. A high Co vapour force per unit area and its high mobility on the substrate surface influence diamond deposition. In the gas stage environing the substrate surface, Co catalyses the formation of nondiamond C stages, which can be deposited at the interface prior to the diamond formation. How and why the Co drops reach the diamond coating surface is non yet to the full understood. Surface forces might play an of import function ( See Figure 16 ) . Figure 16 Co as portion of the hardmetal binder stage and its influences on the diamond depositionElectrochemical ApplicationsElectrochemical behaviour of boron-doped CVD diamond is one of the most promising applications of conductive diamond. Boron doped diamond fits the demand for an electrode operates inertly and without impairment in rough chemical environments. Compare to platinum electrodes, diamond electrodes provide a much wider potency scope over which no important H2O decomposition occurs. ( Reinhard ) Diamond electrodes are suited substrates for reactions crossing a broad possible scope in aqueous solutions. They besides have the advantage of chemical stableness, even in extremely aggressive environments. In Figure 17 the I-V curves obtained with a B doped CVD diamond electrodes in assorted ( KI, KBr, and HCl ) solutions are shown. The behaviour of the doped diamond electrode is much superior to that of the commonly used baronial metal electrodes. Diamond bears as a stuff for the fiction of cold cathode or other negatron breathing devices requires the diamond to be electrically conductive, with no demand for an accurately known doping degree. ( R. ) Figure 17 Current V. Potential of a extremely B doped CVD diamond electrode in ( a ) 1 M KI ; ( B ) 1 M KBr and ( degree Celsius ) 1 M HCl. Scan rate 150 mV/s. The alone negatron emanation belongingss of diamond are the most promising applications of semiconducting diamond. Although, no clear apprehension of the natural philosophies that determined the negatron emanation from diamond emerges. There are still many applications such as field emanation from diamond surfaces utilizing diamond to conductive.Thermal ManagementThe high thermic conduction of diamond, combined in some instances with its chemical inertness and high electrical electric resistance, makes it of involvement for a assortment of thermic direction applications. Laser diamond heat sinks and other thermic direction substrates formed from CVD polycrystalline diamond are illustrations of available merchandises. Because diamond combines exceptionally high thermic conduction with exceptionally low electrical conduction, it is of considerable involvement in electrical packaging applications. It provides efficient waies for heat flow without compromising the electrical isolation of single constituents. ( Reinhard )Transmission ApplicationsDiamond provides a window with high transmission for assorted parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is an ideal radiation window stuff in peculiar for applications affecting high power degrees and mechanical, thermic or chemical burden. Due to its big bandgap ( 5.5 electron volt ) and the deficiency of infrared active cardinal vibrational manners, diamond is optically crystalline over a big wavelength scope. Even at elevated temperatures, diamond remains crystalline, since the big bandgap does non let the formation of free bearers. In the x-ray part of the spectrum, diamond is of involvement for x-ray lithography masks. The low atomic figure of diamond consequences in low x-ray soaking up. Another illustration is in high-octane gyrotrons such as are used in merger research. This application requires the transmittal of really big powers ( megawatts ) at microwave frequences ( 170 GHz ) every bit good as the ability to dis perse heat quickly. The ability to convey high powers in the optical part of the spectrum is of involvement to laser interior decorators because the design of high-power optical masers is power limited by harm bounds to laser optics instead than restrictions of the optical maser medium or pumping mechanisms. The abrasion opposition and chemical inertness make diamond of involvement as an optical coating stuff every bit good. ( Reinhard ) Diamond is known for its broadband optical transparence covering the UV, seeable, close and far IR. In this scope the optical transmittal exhibits merely minor intrinsic soaking up sets originating from two- phonon ( 1332-2664 cm-1 ) and three-phonon ( 2665-3994 cm-1 ) passages. The maximal soaking up coefficient sums to 14 cm-1 at 2158 cm-1. This holds true for optical class CVD-diamond as shown in Figure 18. The soaking up around 10 ^m is of peculiar involvement for CO2-laser constituents and because many IR detectors operate within the 8-12 ?m atmospheric window. ( Nazare and Neves ) Figure 18Transmission spectrum of a high-quality CVD-diamond window ( thickness: 150 ?m ) ( Nazare and Neves ) CVD-diamond is besides used as vacuity Windowss for high-power microwave ( Gyrotron ) tubing. These Gyrotron tubings are used for the negatron cyclotron warming of merger plasmas. Power degrees transcending 1 MW at frequences of around 100 GHz have been demonstrated. Until late the end product window of these devices has been the most critical constituent restricting the maximal end product power or the pulse continuance. In this context CVD-diamond window with H2O edgecooling is found to be really promising. The highly high power degree requires really low insulator losingss. CVD-diamond exhibits loss tangent values every bit low as 10-5 ( at 140 GHz ) . Below 350-400 & A ; deg ; C there is practically no temperature dependance. In the 10- 145 GHz range the loss tangent decreases with frequence as 1/f [ 27 ] or as 1/f05. ( Nazare and Neves )X-ray lithography masksThe declaration bound of optical lithography is defined by diffraction and sprinkling as the characteristic size approach es the exposing wavelength. X ray lithography, which uses significantly shorter radiation ( 0.8-1.5 nm versus 300-400 nanometer ) , offers a proficient way to accomplishing the higher declaration. However, several factors have delayed the execution of X-ray lithography on the production line for IC fiction. The major non-technical factor is related to the immense constitutional optical technological substructure which has continued to do important betterments by utilizing measure and repetition exposure tools, integrating multilevel resist, using contrast foils, utilizing shorter wavelength radiation, planing higher numerical aperture optics, which has efficaciously delayed the execution of X-ray lithography. The proficient barriers to X-ray lithography execution include the absence of a dependable, high volume, low defect denseness X-ray mask engineering, a high velocity X-ray resist, a high velocity, low cost exposure/alignment tool. The best mask stuff has low atomic figure since the X-ray transparence improves with diminishing atomic figure. TABLE 1 reveals the failing of polymers as membrane stuff campaigners. They are non merely hygroscopic but are automatically soft and hence easy distorted. The metals Ti and Be are reasonably stiff ; nevertheless, their opacity is troublesome, but non pathological, since alliance Windowss can be etched in the membrane after overcoating with polyimide to back up the alliance form. Beryllium would be first-class were it crystalline, dismissing its toxicity. Si and its nitride and oxide are good from an X-ray and optical transparence point of view but lack the mechanical stiffness of the furnace linings like SiC, BN and diamond. Si has the important advantage of a big installed engineering base and capital equipment handiness. As can be seen, diamond has the highest stiffness factor S of any stuff. There are other factors to see in choosing a stuff such as: scale-up of fiction procedure, X-ray-induced debasement, surface smoothness, two-dimensionality, secondary negatron emanation induced by the X raies, adhesion of metallization. Diamond ‘s low mass soaking up coefficient and low denseness make it compatible with a assortment of X-ray beginnings. ( Nazare and Neves ) Table 4 Comparison of stuffs based on X-ray transparence Texas, optical transparence to, and mechanical stiffness S. ( Nazare and Neves ) Material Texas ( ?m ) t0 S = Et0Z ( I-V ) ( GPa Polyimide 8.7 & A ; gt ; 5 43 Mylar 8.5 & A ; gt ; 5 42 Titanium 1.09 Opaque–Be 42.0 Opaque–Silicon 9.6 2 362 Al2O3 0.8 1 448 SiO2 4.99 5 444 Si3N4 7.71 6 728 BN 7.94 4 420 SiC 6.81 3 1590 Diamond 5.9 2 2336Detectors and DetectorsDiamond-based devices are besides of involvement for observing a assortment of radiation types every bit good as feeling assorted physical parametric quantities such as temperature and force per unit area. For illustration, diamond thermal resistors have been proposed for temperature measuring in hostile environments such as chemical processing, gearbox oil, and cryogenies. The piezoresistive consequence of diamond has been used to feel force per unit area, and p-type CVD polycrystalline diamond is reported to hold a big piezoresistive gage factor [ 12 ] . Diamond is highly radiation hard, with a 55-eV supplanting energy for a C atom in the diamond lattice. It besides acts as an ionizing radiation sensor and is hence of involvement for radiation measurings where exposure to big doses is required. The big set spread of diamond make it of involvement as a UV sensor, based on photoconduction, which is blind to seeable visible radiation. ( Reinhard )Decision