What Is the Definition of Shape in Art

In the study of art, a shape is an enclosed space, a bounded two-dimensional form that has both length and width. Shapes are one of the seven elements of art, the building blocks that artists use to create images on canvas and in our minds. A shapes boundaries are defined by other elements of art such as lines, values, colors, and textures; and by adding value you can turn a shape into an illusion of its three-dimensional cousin, form. As an artist or someone who appreciates art, its important to fully understand how shapes are used. What Makes It a Shape? Shapes are everywhere and all objects have shape. When painting or drawing, you create a shape in two dimensions: length and width. You can add value to give it highlights and shadows, making it look more three-dimensional. However, it is not until form and shape meet, such as in sculpture, that a shape becomes truly three-dimensional. That is because form  is defined by including a third dimension, depth, to the two flat dimensions. Abstract art is the most obvious example of the use of shape, but the element of shape, organic and geometric alike, is central to much if not most artwork. What Creates a Shape? At its most basic, a shape is created when a line is enclosed: a line forms the boundary, and the shape is the form circumscribed by that boundary. Line and shape are two elements in art that are nearly always used together. Three lines are used to create a triangle while four lines can make a square. Shapes can also be defined by the artist using value, color, or texture to differentiate them. Shapes might include a line in order to achieve this, or it might not: for example, shapes created with collages are defined by the edges of contrasting material. Geometric Shapes Geometric shapes are those that are defined in mathematics and have common names. They have clear edges  or boundaries and artists often use tools such as protractors and compasses to create them, to make them mathematically precise. Shapes in this category include circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, polygons, and so forth. Canvases are typically rectangular in shape, implicitly defining the clear edges and boundaries of a painting or photograph. Artists such as Reva Urban purposefully break out of the rectangular mold by using non-rectangular canvases or by adding on pieces that protrude out of the frames or by adding three-dimensional swells, dips, and protrusions. In this manner, Urban moves beyond the two-dimensionality of a rectangular confinement but still references the shapes. Geometric abstract art such as Piet Mondrians Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) and Theo van Doesburgs Composition XI (1918) established the De Stijl movement in the Netherlands. American Sarah Morriss Apple (2001) and street artist Maya Hayuks work are more recent examples of paintings including geometric shapes. Organic Shapes While geometric shapes are well-defined, biomorphic or organic shapes are just the opposite. Draw a curving, semi-circular line and connect it where you began and you have an amoeba-like organic, or freeform, shape.   Organic shapes are individual creations of the artists: they have no names, no defined angles, no standards, and no tools that support their creation. They can often be found in nature, where organic shapes can be as amorphous as a cloud or as precise as a leaf.   Organic shapes are often used by photographers, such as Edward Weston in his remarkably sensual image Pepper No. 30 (1930); and by artists such Georgia OKeeffe in her  Cows Skull: Red, White, and Blue (1931). Organic abstract artists include Wassily Kandinsky, Jean Arp, and Joan Miro. Positive and Negative Space Shape can also work with the element space to create positive and negative spaces. Space is another of the seven elements, and in some abstract art, it defines shapes. For instance, if you draw a solid black coffee cup on white paper, the black is your positive space. The white negative space around it and between the handle and the cup helps define the basic shape of that cup. Negative and positive spaces were used with great imagination by M.C. Escher, in examples such as Sky and Water 1 (1938), in which dark images of a flying goose evolve through progressively lighter and then darker steps into dark swimming fish. Malaysian artist and illustrator Tang Yau Hoong uses negative space to make political commentary on cityscapes, and modern and ancient tattoo artists use positive and negative spaces combining ink and un-tattooed flesh. Seeing Shape Within Objects In the first stages of drawing, artists will often break their subjects down into geometric shapes. This is intended to give them a basis on which to create the larger object with more details and in correct proportion.   For example, when drawing a portrait of a wolf, an artist might begin with basic geometric shapes to define the animals ears, snout, eyes, and head. This forms the basic structure from which he will create the final work of art. Leonardo da Vincis Vitruvian Man (1490) used geometric shapes of circles and squares to define and comment on the anatomy of a human male. Cubism and Shapes As an acute observer, you can break any object down to its basic shape: Everything is made up of a series of base shapes. Exploring the work of the Cubist painters is a great way to see how artists play with this elementary concept in art. Cubist paintings such as Pablo Picassos Les Desmoiselles dAvignon (1907) and Marcel Duchamps  Nude Descending a Staircase No. 3 (1912) use geometric shapes as playful and haunting references to the organic shapes of the human body. Sources and Further Reading Beck, Paula D. Fourth-Grade Students’ Subjective Interactions with the Seven Elements of Art: An Exploratory Case Study Using Q-Methodology. Long Island University, 2014. Print.Davidson, Abraham A. Cubism and the Early American Modernist. Art Journal 26.2 (1966): 122-65. Print.Kelehear, Zach. Pass the Crayons: Leadership, Art Production, and Communities of Practice. International Journal of Education Policy Leadership 5.10 (2010). Print.Pasko, Galina, et al. Ascending in Space Dimensions: Digital Crafting of M.C. Eschers Graphic Art. Leonardo 44.5 (2011): 411-16. Print.Silk, Gerald. In and out of Shape: The Art of Reva Urban. Womans Art Journal 34.2 (2013): 21-28. Print.Stiny, George, and James Gips. Shape Grammars and the Generative Specification of Painting and Sculpture. The Best Computer Papers of 1971. Ed. Petrocelli, O.R. Philadelphia: Auerbach, 1971. 125-35. Print.

The Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck - 1806 Words

The â€Å"Grapes of Wrath† a story written by John Steinbeck tells of the woes that surround the great â€Å"Dust Bowl† that took place in our country during the 1930s. After already being hit by the Great Depression, the bread basket of our nation sinks even further as they soon delve into an economic disaster. Within this novel, Steinbeck opens a window for readers into the lives of the people who suffered to survive tis catastrophe; while also bringing up many social, economic, and political issues surrounding it in symbolic ways. The book itself is centered around the journey of a singular family, but is representative of the horrifying journey thousands of people dealt with at the time. Amid the narrative story, Steinbeck gives readers a more†¦show more content†¦As high-wind storms went through the land, which is common in the area, the soil that was left had nothing to hold on to, and thus it blew everywhere. Tenants could no longer farm, many of them we re even trapped in their homes much of the time due to the high amount of dust. Thus, to this disaster, tenants were kicked of their land with nowhere to go. Starving and left without options these people looked towards the westward direction, to a land called California, where they were told there was work. Thousands of people packed up their families and whatever small amounts of personal possessions hey could carry and began the westward journey. Thus, began the nation’s second great migration westward. The Dust Bowel began because man tried to play God. The need for land and profit outweighed the need to care for the world we live in; when once farmers lived on small parcels of land, cultivated it, cared for it, and took pride in it, now became a means to make money at all costs. Man, pushed against nature and nature fought back with vengeance. Because of this disaster and the devastation, it caused one would think man would recognize it and prevent it from happening agai n. Sadly, this appears to not be the case. Today, man is still pushing against nature like never before. Manufacturing pollutes our air, ships, fuel, waste, and more pollute our waters, forests are cut down, land has continued to beShow MoreRelatedThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck Essay1622 Words   |  7 Pages The Grapes of Wrath John Steinbeck, widely viewed as one of the most finest and powerful American writer, born to a middle-class family in 1902 in the Salinas Valley of California. Steinbeck is a writer who often spoke for the people. The Grapes of Wrath is a great movie, published in 1939, filled with many universal truths and views on human nature and society, especially where class is concerned. In the article, John Steinbeck The Grapes a wrath: A Call to Action says, â€Å"Steinbeck’s novel showcasedRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1075 Words   |  5 PagesKirsten Lloyd Mr. Eldridge AP Junior English 21 August 2014 Grapes of Wrath â€Å"Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.† (Seneca), In the 1939 novel, The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, the reader accompanies the Joad family as they struggle to escape the crippling Dust Bowl of the mid- 1930’s. In hopes of establishing a new life for themselves after being forced off their land the family embark on a journey from Oklahoma to California in search of fruitful crops and steady work alongRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1563 Words   |  7 Pages John Steinbeck’s novel, The Grapes of Wrath, depicts a migrant farming family in the 1930s. During this time, life revolved around the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, making circumstances difficult for almost everyone involved, especially those who had little. This time of drought and despair caused people to lose hope in everything they’ve ever known, even themselves, but those who did not, put their hope in the â€Å"promised land† of California. Here, the grass was thought to be truly greenerRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1189 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† Shortly after being released John Steinbeck’s book â€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† was banned because many critics viewed the novel as promoting communist propaganda, or socialist ideas. The ideas that many of these critics point to is Steinbeck’s depiction of the Big Banks/ Businesses as monsters, the comparison of Government camps to a utopia in contrast of the makeshift â€Å"Hoovervilles,† and the theme of the community before the individual, In his novel â€Å"The Grapes of Wrath† John SteinbeckRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1093 Words   |  5 Pages In John Steinbeck s The Grapes of Wrath, Tom Joad and his family are forced from their home during the 1930’s Oklahoma Dust Bowl and set out for California along with thousands of others in search of jobs, land, and hope for a brighter future. The Grapes of Wrath is Steinbeck’s way to expound about the injustice and hardship of real migrants during the Depression-era. H e utilizes accurate factual information, somber imagery, and creates pathos, allowing readers connections to the Joad’s plightRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1190 Words   |  5 PagesThe Grapes of Wrath April 14th, 1939, John Steinbeck published the novel, The Grapes of Wrath. The novel became an immediate best seller, with selling over 428,900 copies. Steinbeck, who lived through both the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, sought to bring attention to how families of Oklahoma outdid these disasters. Steinbeck focuses on families of Oklahoma, including the Joads family, who reside on a farm. The Joad family is tested with hardship when life for them on their farm takesRead MoreThe Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck702 Words   |  3 PagesJohn Steinbeck’s use of the intercalary chapters in The Grapes of Wrath helps weave the reader’s sympathy of the Joad family into a more broad sympathy for the migrant farmers as a whole, in the hopes that the readers would then be compelled to act upon what they have read. During the Great Depression, people had a big disconnect about what was happening in various parts of the country. People often struggle to find sympathy for events when they can’t even visualize a person who is suffering throughRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck2144 Words   |  9 PagesThe Grapes of Wrath is a well-known beloved novel of American Literature, written by John Steinbeck and published in 1939. Whoever said a road is just a road has not read The Grapes of Wrath. From the time we read when Tom Joad, novel’s protagonist, returns home after four years in prison; the meaning of roads changed. Route 66, also known as the mother road the road of flight, was a lifeline road, which allowed thousands of families to pursue their hopes and dreams. This road is also the road thatRead MoreThe Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck1014 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Steinbeck’s novel, The Grapes of Wrath, was first written and later published in the 1939. Fr om the time of its publication to date, the exemplary yet a simple book has seen Steinbeck win a number of highly coveted awards including Pulitzer Prize in 1940 and later on Nobel Prize for Literature in 1962. Set at the time of the Great Depression, the book most remarkably gives a descriptive account of the Oklahoma based sharecropper Joad’ poor family in the light of economic hardship, homelessnessRead MoreThe Grapes Of Wrath By John Steinbeck1064 Words   |  5 PagesThe Grapes of Wrath, originated from a John Steinbeck’s book, a legendary film that focus on a major point of American history. The story follows the Joad family on their journey to California trying to survive the hardships. This film, focus on the social problems of America like the Dust bowl, The Great Depression, and industrialism. The Grapes of Wrath was filmed in a journalistic-documentary style, which displayed the realism of the epidemic in the thirties. The thirties the period The Grapes

The Different Motivational Theories Free Essays

This model, namely expectancy theory, suggests that individuals, acting through self-interest, adopt courses of action perceived as maximizing the probability of desirable outcomes for themselves. This desire to maximize self-interest provides aspiring leaders with unique opportunities to assume leadership roles by simultaneously meeting both follower needs and organizational requirements. We intend to explicitly link expectancy theory and leadership concepts to demonstrate that leader interactions with followers permit the establishment of highly motivational working environments. We will write a custom essay sample on The Different Motivational Theories or any similar topic only for you Order Now In so doing, individuals acquire the means to transcend their traditional roles of supervisor, manager, or follower, and realize their potentials as leaders. In order to remain competitive at home or within the global market, we must stop relegating in our minds the functions of leadership to the office of the president or CEO of the organization. Instead, we must come to view the leadership role as part of every employee’s job, at all levels of the organization. (Isaac, Zerbe Pitt, 2001, p. 212) Since its origins in the 1960s Equity Theory held forth the promise of helping to explain how employees respond to situations in which they perceive they are being rewarded more or less favorably in comparison to a referent doing similar work. Shortly after its inception, Weick (1966) deemed it to be one of the most useful existing organizational behavior theories. Subsequent reviews concluded that the empirical evidence supporting Equity Theory was generally strong, especially with regards to how workers respond to under-reward situations. Equity Theory proposed that subjects respond to under-reward situations in various ways in an attempt to bring their equity ratio back into balance. For example, subjects may choose a behavioral response to help reduce their feelings of inequity. They may respond in such ways as reducing their inputs (i. e. , not put forth as much effort) or increasing their outcomes (i. e. , ask for a raise). Subjects may instead use a cognitive response to reduce feelings of inequity such as selecting another person to use as their referent. Ultimately the subject may choose to exit the situation by deciding to transfer or quit the organization. Allen White, 2002) Although previous Equity Theory research has concluded that under-rewarded subjects generally respond in a manner that is consistent with classic Equity Theory, it is not easy to predict which option they will select to bring their equity ratio into balance. This lack of specificity regarding what responses individuals experiencing inequity are likely to have is a serious shortcoming of the original Equity Theory. As such, the original Equity Theory eventually fell out of favor due in part to this inability to predict exactly how individuals would respond to an under-reward situation (e. . , lower their inputs, attempt to raise their outcomes, cognitively justifying the situation, decide to leave the organization). This lack of predictive ability of Equity Theory makes it much less useful to practitioners such as managers and human resource professionals who would greatly benefit if they could accurately predict the reactions that their employees would have to different inequitable situations. Accordingly, research on the topic of Equity Theory moved off in another direction. Inspired by legal research, the procedural justice stream of research began to focus more on the processes and procedures of how pay and recognition are determined, rather than the reactions that individuals have to them. Equity Theory research became less popular and eventually withered away. (Allen White, 2002) While changing organizational culture is not an easy process, it can be accomplished by emphasizing a commitment to the individual employee. Despite the literature’s heavy emphasis on the private sector, many of the elements of Theory Z can be found in public organizations. This article describes one city’s effort to change culture by emphasizing fair treatment of organizational members, employee involvement, two-way communication, employees’ personal development and recognition and camaraderie. During the past decade, organizations in the American society have faced great uncertainty. The challenge of meeting the increasing competition of the Japanese and Western Europeans in the international marketplace, massive reordering of corporations through leveraged acquisitions and consolidations, and rapidly changing technology have impacted organizational life in the private sector. Public sector organizations have faced the effects of the new federalism, the Tax Reform Act of 1986, taxpayer revolts, and numerous other events and actions which have caused disruption. These demands on American organizations, especially those coming from foreign competition, have forced leaders to question their management abilities and their organizations’ commitment to excel. As part of this introspection, an examination of the underlying values, beliefs, and attitudes of organizations has been undertaken, especially in the popular, non-academic literature (Watson Burkhalter, 1992) Job Design for service employees has been categorized as a â€Å"production line† approach or an â€Å"empowerment† approach (Bowen Lawler, 1992). The production line approach, as its name implies, is based on a Tayloristic view. It is based on four tenets — simple tasks, clear division of labor, substitution of equipment and systems for employees, and little decision-making discretion of employees. This design seeks to gain customer satisfaction through efficiency, consistency, and low costs. It is imperative with the production line job design that IT is installed as a part of that design so as to facilitate matching it to the service encounters anticipated. The number and nature of the options from which the employee chooses should then be limited to matching the constraints on their decision-making authority. Any access to additional information would not only be of no use; it would actually deter efficiency. For example, if all hamburgers are prepared to the same degree of doneness, giving a customer encounter person the option of asking a customer how he/she would like the meat cooked would slow down the process. In fast food, cash registers (which also communicate orders to the backroom) prompt order-takers through the decisions that are allowable. Thus, the more standardized the service the more easily circumscribed technologically it can be(5) because the reality of the encounter is simple and presumed to be more easily captured than encounters in which provided services are customized and the outcome of any one such encounter is variable. The more circumscribed technologically the service is, the more efficiently the service can be performed but the more dependent upon the circumscribing technology customer encounter service personnel become. Mechling Little, 2000, p. 65) The Two-factor Theory, or Motivation and Hygiene Theory, purports to differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of the job. The authors referred to the intrinsic factors as content or motivators, and they include: achievement, advancement, the work itself, responsibility, and recognition. The extrinsic factors were referred to as hygiene has and included: company policy and administration, technical supervision, working conditions, salary, and interpersonal supervision. (Maidani, 1991) the applicability of Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of job Satisfaction among public and private sector employees. The study, therefore was designed to investigate the job content (motivators or intrinsic) and job context (hygiene or extrinsic) factors contributing to job satisfaction among those employees. Furthermore, the study attempted to determine whether using this instrument would yield the same results as those of Herzberg et al. (1959) using the critical incidents techniques. Hypothesis 1 was supported. Significant differences were found due to the fact that the satisfied group values motivator significantly more than the dissatisfied group. A t-value of 1. 98 indicated that a significant difference existed between the two groups. Hypothesis 2 was not supported. No significant differences were found between the satisfied and dissatisfied employees relating to value placed on hygiene factors. Hypothesis 3 was not supported as no significant differences were found between private and public sector employees on the value placed on motivator factors. (Maidani, 1991) The expectancy theory – formulated by Edward C Tolman in the 1930s – (whereby behavior rests on the instinctive tendency for individuals to balance the value of expected benefits against the expenditure of energy) falls into the same ‘stimulus-response’ approach to motivation. It demonstrates that an individual’s strength of motivation can be affected by the expectations of outcomes from certain actions and further strengthened by the individuals preferred outcome, as demonstrated by Victor H. Vroom in the 1960s. Individuals are consciously self-interested in the outcomes of their actions. For example, a worker may put in extra time and effort to a project and expect to be paid more money. That is his desired reward and what he expects. If he does not receive, what he expects his motivational level will fall dramatically. Elton Mayo, in the Hawthorne experiments concluded that individuals adjusted their motivational levels to fit in with the group. The individual values the approval and acceptance of others and will conform to the groups motivational standards in order to ‘fit in’. One important point about expectancy theory is that individual perceptions can be very different, and the motivation and behavior of individuals will vary considerably. It pays, therefore, in external stimuli to bear in mind that: 1. he routes to desired outcomes for individuals and teams are clear; and 2. individuals perceive the rewards or punishments in different ways according to their own values. There is a great need to treat people as individuals but as the 50:50 rule also indicates, other motivational factors should always be set in the context of the individual’s managed environment. Leaders have a vital role to play in creating a motivational environment in which their team members can excel by in turn using the motivation within themselves. To be able to do this, we as leaders need to begin by looking at ourselves and getting our contribution right before we can criticize others. (Thomas, 2004, p. 61) Process models are based on the important insight that responses to (persuasive) messages do not only take the form of controlled, capacity-intensive cognitive processes, or only the form of simple automatic processes involving little working memory. Message processing may be dominated by either form, or it may blend the two, depending on our ability and motivation to think about the substance of a message. Affective processes appear to (a) influence levels of motivation and ability to process in a thoughtful manner, (b) guide the retrieval of information from memory, and (c) provide cues to simple responses (Babrow, 1993, p. 111) Dialectical perspectives on communication also embody multiple- process theory. Of course, dialectical analyses of one sort or another have been discussed for centuries (see Adler, 1952). As numerous dialectical thinkers have pointed out, however, several themes are consistent in these writings; these themes exemplify some of the most desirable potentialities of multiple- process theory. The most elemental theme in dialectical thinking is that of opposition; â€Å"dialectic either begins or ends with some sort of intellectual conflict, or develops and resolves around such oppositions† ( Adler, 1952 , p. 350). Dialectical opposites are â€Å"mutually conditioning† (the occurrence, existence, or meaning of one pole is conditioned by its opposite) and at the same time â€Å"mutually excluding† . For instance, sound presupposes but also excludes silence, and so too for amity and enmity, motion and stillness. (Babrow, 1993, p. 15) All of these theories thrive on the perception of the individual working to better themselves in some way. They differ in their methods, some look at how the individual will work for recognition, advancement, or just for encouragement. All of these methods are effective means of making individuals and groups work more efficiently. However, it is important to point out that each method does not work for the same situation. One must be able to differentiate between the theories in order to determine the best means. How to cite The Different Motivational Theories, Essay examples

Status of Woman in Indian Society free essay sample

STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE PAST TO THE PRESENT Ancient India:- In ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with men in all fields of life. Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period. Rigvedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband. Scriptures such as Rig Veda and Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitreyi. According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period. 14] However, later (approximately 500 B. C. ), the status of women began to decline with the Smritis (esp. Manusmriti) and with the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal empire and later Christianity curtailing womens freedom and rights. Although reformatory movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to the religious order, by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restrictions. We will write a custom essay sample on Status of Woman in Indian Society or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The practice of child marriages is believed to have started from around sixth century. Medieval period The Indian womans position in the society further deteriorated during the medieval period when Sati among some communities, child marriages and a ban on widow remarriages became part of social life among some communities in India. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent brought the purdah practice in the Indian society. Among the Rajputs of Rajasthan, the Jauhar was practiced. In some parts of India, the Devadasis or the temple women were sexually exploited. Polygamy was widely practised especially among Hindu Kshatriya rulers. In spite of these conditions, some women excelled in the fields of politics, literature, education and religion. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, divisions and heralded social and religious institutions. The Bhakti movements tried to restore womens status and questioned some of the forms of oppression . Shortly after the Bhakti movement, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs also preached the message of equality between men and women. Historical practices that hindered women empowerment such as sati, jauhar, and devadasi have been banned and are largely defunct in modern India. However, some cases of these practices are still found in remote parts of India. The purdah is still practised by Indian women among some communities, and child marriage remains prevalent despite it being an illegal practice. British rule European scholars observed in the 19th century that Hindu women are naturally chaste and more virtuous than other women. During the British Raj, many reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule etc. fought for the upliftment of women. Peary Charan Sarkar, a former student of Hindu College, Calcutta and a member of Young Bengal set up the first free school for girls in India in 1847 in Barasat, a suburb of Calcutta Raja Rammohan Roys efforts led to the abolition of the Sati practice under Governor-General William Cavendish-Bentinck in 1829. Ishwar Chandra . Vidyasagars crusade for the improvement in condition of widows led to the Widow Remarriage Act In 1917, the first womens delegation met the Secretary of State to demand womens political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Womens Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927. In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl through the efforts of Mahomed Ali Jinnah. Though Mahatma Gandhi himself married at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon the young men to marry the child widows. Women played an important part in Indias independence struggle. Independent India Women in India now participate in all activities such as education, sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc. Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime Minister of India for an aggregate period of fifteen years is the worlds longest serving woman Prime Minister The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42). The feminist activism in India picked up momentum during later 1970s. Female activists united over issues such as female infanticide, gender bias, women health, and female literacy. Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India, many women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and other states. Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental leaders interpretation of womens rights under the Shariat law and have criticized the triple talaq system. In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Womens Association (SEWA) have played a major role in womens rights in India. The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Womens Empowerment . The National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women came was passed in 2001. In 2010 March 9, one day after International Womens day, Rajyasabha passed Womens Reservation Bill, ensuring 33% reservation to women in Parliament and state legislative bodies. Women upliftment and empowerment in  India  first received National and International recognition when the Indira Gandhi’s Government launched the Indira Mahila Yojana and when the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) incorporated the issue of Women Upliftment as one of its primary objective. PRESENT SCENARIO: Even after fifty seven years of Indian independence, women are still one of the most powerless and marginalized sections of Indian society. The 2001 Census shows that the sex ratio for India is 933, which is lowest in the world. Percentage of female literacy is 54. 16 (2001 Census) against male literacy of 75. 85 per cent. In India, womens representation in Parliament and in the State Assemblies has never beyond 8 and 10 per cent respectively . Most of the working women remain outside the organised sector. A mere 2. per cent women are administrators and managers, 20. 5 per cent professional and the technical workers, all of whom collectively earn 25 per cent of the shared income. Violence against women is on the rise Women of India are relatively disempowered and they enjoy somewhat lower status than that of men in spite of many efforts undertaken by government. Gender gap exists regarding access to education and employment. Household decision making power and freed om of movement of women vary considerably with their age, education and employment status. Acceptance of unequal gender norms by women are still prevailing in the society. More than half of the women believe wife beating to be justified for one reason or the other. Fewer women have final say on how to spend their earnings. Control over cash earnings increases with age, education and with place of residence. Women’s exposure to media is also less relative to men. Rural women are more prone to domestic violence than that of urban women. A large gender gap exists in political participation too. EMERGING ROLES